AS Media Studies – Unit G322: Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) - Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation

The following notes centre on the concept of representation in TV Drama - the clip that you will see can be taken from any TV Drama that has been shown on British TV (including popular US TV Dramas).

At the heart of the essay that you must write for Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation on the Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) paper, is a discussion of the ways in which camera shots, angles, movement and composition, editing, sound, and mise-en-scene create meaning for an audience BUT you must also focus on the representation of one of the following: 

• Gender 
• Age 
• Ethnicity 
• Sexuality 
• Class/Status 
• Physical ability/Disability 
• Regional identity

Every year the question is essentially the same - you are required to look at technical decisions made by the directors (the questions will even be worded in the same way) BUT the one thing that changes is the area of representation that you must comment on.

You must focus your analysis on whichever area of representation is mentioned in the question - relating any comments about camerawork, editing, sound and mise-en-scene to the ways in which meaning is created for the audience regarding that area of representation.

It is worth referencing the area of representation in your opening paragraph or introduction - when you discuss briefly the purpose of the scene (see notes on essay structure that you have written on your exam paper, and that can be found in an earlier post on this blog) and you should be able to discuss whether representations are stereotypical or atypical (that is, they go against what you expected). If you write an introduction it should include an overview of how the area of representation is presented throughout the scene.

Finally, remember to relate choices regarding camerawork, editing, sound and mise-en-scene directly to representation - how does, for example, a high angle shot, a zoom in, the pace of the editing, the breaking of one of the rules of continuity editing, the music, costume, make-up, figure behaviour, side lighting, voiceover, setting or props tell you anything regarding gender, age, ethnicity, sexuality, class/status, physical ability/disability or regional identity?

GENDER

• Which gender is dominant - male or female? How can you tell? Does this change throughout the sequence? 
• Are gender roles represented stereotypically? 
• Are the women represented as one of the following: vulnerable victim/damsel in distress, sex object, temptress, housewife, put-upon mother OR have they broken free from these stereotypes and are they represented atypically as assertive, powerful, in control? 
• Are the men stereotypically macho, misogynistic in their attitudes towards women OR do they represent a more modern view of masculinity where men are more in touch with their feelings and view women as their equals?

AGE

• How are young people represented - lacking morals, violent, sexually promiscuous, out of control OR more mature, sensible and responsible? 
• How are older people represented - as busybodies who frequently moan, frail individuals at odds with the world today OR do they challenge expectations with their attitudes towards sex/violence/drugs? 
• Are the young or old represented in a positive or negative light - do the representations conform to or break stereotypes?

ETHNICITY

• How are ethnic minorities represented - lacking power, submissive to the white ruling classes, a threat to dominant white society OR is the race/ethnicity of a character irrelevant? Does a character’s ethnicity become an issue to other characters?
• Does the scene present race stereotypically or atypically? Are all ethnic minorities represented in the same way?

SEXUALITY

• Are homosexuals/lesbians portrayed in a stereotypical way through their figure behaviour/costume/mannerisms OR are characters presented in either a more favourable light/their sexuality not an issue? 
• Think about the way that ‘straight’ characters react towards homosexuals and lesbians - what are these characters’ attitudes towards sexuality?

CLASS/STATUS

• Is there a noticeable representation of class/status - look out for elements of mise-en-scene and indicators such as setting, props, costume and character’s attitudes towards one another. Are characters treated differently as a result of their class or status?
• Are the working classes, middle classes and upper classes represented in a stereotypical way?
• Is there a clash between the classes? How does this manifest itself throughout the scene?

PHYSICAL ABILITY/DISABILITY

• Representations of disability, to a degree, continue to be taboo in British and US drama - but you should think about the way that disabled characters are represented compared to those who are able-bodied? Are they treated differently by the other characters OR are they presented as living the same kind of life as more able-bodied characters? 
• Does their disability become an issue? Who is the disability an issue for - the disabled character or able-bodied characters in the scene?

REGIONAL IDENTITY

• Is there any indication that a character acts differently because of where they come from? 
• How are locations represented - is the North, for example, represented as stereotypically glum/bleak AND the South represented as more affluent? 
• Look also at language and costume - are the representations stereotypical, maybe mocking a character’s area of origin?
• Look out for characters who find themselves living/working away from where they are from - think about the ways that they may struggle to fit in or adapt to their new surroundings. Are they prejudiced OR are others prejudiced towards them?

Textual Analysis - Camerawork 4 - Shot Composition

The final area of camerawork you will need to consider is shot composition. Often you will find yourself using these terms in conjunction with other areas of camerawork, such as shot distance, camera angles and camera movement.

Shot composition is just as important as the other areas of camerawork, and can be crucial when making comments about the chosen area of representation in the question for Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation on the G322 Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) paper.

Again, you should carefully learn the terms and try to relate them to the comments you make about age, gender, race, class, disability, sexuality or regional identity.

TWO SHOT

As the name of the shot suggests, a two shot includes two characters in the frame. It is not enough to simply label the shot (you do not get marks for being able to count!) - instead, you must think about the proxemics of the characters - where they are in the frame in relation to each other. If the characters are alongside each other (which could suggest that the characters are on an equal footing) you should think about the distance between them and what this suggests about the relationship - if they are near each other it may suggest a close relationship, if they are at opposite sides of the frame it may suggest their relationship is distanced, it has broken down or that there is animosity between them. You should also consider whether one character is in the foreground whilst the other is in the background, explaining what this may indicate about the respective characters. If a character is in the foreground it may indicate to the audience that they are more important or more powerful (they may be the central protagonist and the dominant character in the relationship). Characters in the background are often less important - they may be inferior to the character in the foreground OR their presence in the background may indicate that they are a threat, they are cunning and sneaky or sinister. Obviously, this all depends upon the context of the scene, and what is taking place in the action. You should also try and relate your comments to the chosen area of representation - what does the two shot indicate about age, gender, race, class or disability?

POINT OF VIEW SHOT (POV)

Point of view shots are shots from the perspective of a character - we see things literally as the character sees them, through their eyes. Point of view shots are often framed by shots of the character looking in a particular direction and are used to position the audience with that character (this will often be the narrative's central protagonist) and to make the audience feel more immersed in the action. When you relate this type of shot to the chosen area of representation you should discuss how POV shots help the audience experience what the character is experiencing - remember that the character's experiences may be directly related to age, class, gender, race, disability, regional identity or sexuality.

OVER THE SHOULDER SHOT

The camera will usually be positioned facing one character from behind a second character, with the second character's shoulder in the corner of the frame (though it is possible to have an over the shoulder shot with only one character in the shot, with landscape or a prop dominating the rest of the frame). Over the shoulder shots are commonly used during conversations and help position the audience with either the character who is talking (indicating that our focus should be on what they are saying) or on the character who is listening (indicating that we should be focusing on their reaction to what is being said). Over the shoulder shots are usually used in a shot-reverse shot pattern, allowing us to follow the conversation. Here, you should perhaps focus on what the conversation indicates about the chosen area of representation - how does what the characters are saying link to age, race, class or gender? Sometimes over the shoulder shots can work in a similar way to point of view shots, positioning the audience more clearly with a particular character.

TIGHT FRAMING

In tightly framed shots we see very little space around characters or objects - they dominate the frame. Tight framing can suggest unity or togetherness but is more commonly use to suggest tension or a sense of claustrophobia, unsettling the audience and making them feel the discomfort that the characters feel. Often tight framing implies that violence will erupt. You should try to relate these particular feelings and experiences to whichever area of representation is being discussed - is the sense of unity a result of shared experiences directly related to age, class or gender OR is any tension created as a result of race, disability or class?

LOOSE FRAMING

Loosely framed shots work in the opposite way to tight framing - there will be a great deal of space around the character or object, often making characters appear vulnerable, under threat and in danger. Loose framing can be used to indicate a sense of freedom BUT it is most commonly used to create anticipation that something terrible will happen to the character. You should try to link this vulnerability directly to the chosen area of representation - are characters vulnerable as a result of their disability, age, race, gender, regional identity, sexuality or class?

DEEP FOCUS

In deep focus shots everything in the foreground and everything in the background will clearly be in focus - this may lead the audience to make a connection between what is happening towards the front of the frame with what is taking place towards the back of the frame.

SHALLOW FOCUS

Shallow focus differs from deep focus as only part of the frame will be in focus whilst the rest of the frame will be blurred. Shallow focus draws the audience's attention to a specific area of the frame, emphasising the importance of the area that is in focus. Sometimes the foreground will be in focus, whilst the background is blurred. Alternatively, the foreground may be blurred whilst the background is in focus. In some instances the middle ground may be in focus whilst both the foreground AND the background are blurred. All of these shots is shallow focus - as only a portion of the frame is clearly visible to the audience. You must try to explain why your attention is being drawn to a particular area of the frame, linking these comments (wherever possible) to the area of representation you have been asked to discuss.

RACK FOCUS/FOCUS PULL

Rack focus is used to describe a shift from one type of shallow focus to another type of shallow focus - what is blurred will come into focus, whilst what is in focus will become blurred. This shift in perspective will lead the audience to change what it is within the frame that they are focusing on. Try to link any shift in focus to the area of representation you have been asked to discuss.

Textual Analysis - Camerawork 3 - Camera Movement

When analysing the clip for Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation on the G322 Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) paper it is likely that you will need to relate various examples of camera movement to the chosen area of representation.

As with the other camerawork terms, there is no necessity to define the term - instead, by using the term confidently and relating it to the action that is taking place (and, of course, commenting on how it reinforces what you are saying about the chosen area of representation) you will gain some of the marks available for appropriate use of terminology.

PAN

WHIP PAN/SWISH PAN

TILT/VERTICAL PAN

TRACKING SHOT

DOLLY IN/OUT

ZOOM IN/OUT

CONTRA-ZOOM

AERIAL SHOT/HELICOPTER SHOT

CRANE SHOT

HANDHELD CAMERAWORK

STEADICAM

Textual Analysis - Camerawork 2 - Camera Angles

The second area of camerawork that you will want to discuss when analysing the clip, in Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation on the G322 Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) paper, relates to camera angles.

Again, you must learn these terms and use them throughout your essay. Remember that camera angles will often indicate something about the potential fate of the characters, and that this will often be relatively straightforward to link to the area of representation that you will be asked to focus on. If, for example, a character is shot from a high angle it is likely that they will be under threat or being presented as weak or vulnerable - the trick is to then suggest that the reason they are being presented as vulnerable is directly related to the area of representation (that is, they are being presented as vulnerable because of their age, gender, disability or class).

Remember - the first thing to do is to say what the choice of camera angle suggests in general terms, before finishing the sentence with a suggestion of what the choice of angle implies about the chosen area of representation.

10 marks out of the 50 available for the essay are given for the appropriate use of terminology - so it is important that you learn the terms and use them frequently throughout your essay.

HIGH ANGLE SHOT

The camera is often placed above the character, as if looking down on them. High angles are mostly used to suggest a character is vulnerable, weak or under threat. Remember that you don't need to define the angle BUT what you should try to do is relate it to the area of representation. Is the character being presented as vulnerable or weak as a result of their age, class, race or disability?

LOW ANGLE SHOT

Low angle shots work in the opposite way to high angle shots. Characters will be shot from below and will appear to dominate the frame. Low angle shots are most commonly used to imply a character's strength or power - and are often associated with heroes or the central protagonist. They can, however, be used to suggest that a character is sinister or threatening. Again, you must relate the use of this angle to the chosen area of representation. Is the character being presented as powerful/strong/sinister or threatening as a result of their race, gender, age or class?

BIRD'S-EYE VIEW SHOT

Bird's-eye view shots are extreme high angle shots, where the characters or landscape are/is shot directly from above. If a character is in the frame the shot will often make them appear tiny against the landscape, hinting at their vulnerability. Most commonly bird's-eye view shots are used to suggest to the audience that the character is somehow being controlled by other characters, or external forces (such as fate). Bird's-eye view shots are also used to suggest the majesty or size of a landscape - they are impressive and exciting shots for the audience because we are placed in a position/given a vantage point that is rare (sometimes the shots are used without any significant reason, simply because they look stunning). Again, it is important to relate the shot to the area of representation - you should think about how the idea of characters being controlled could be related to their disability, age, class, gender or race.

CANTED FRAMING/DUTCH ANGLE

Canted shots, or Dutch angles, where the shot appears tilted to one side as if the camera has been tipped at an angle while shooting, are used to unsettle the audience or to suggest that something terrible (such as violence) is imminent. On screen the audience will witness strange diagonal angles rather than a more traditional straight-on, eye level view. Canted framing suggests danger or something untoward to the audience but can also be used to reflect a character's disorientation, confusion, fragile mental state or a drug or alcohol-induced stupor.

You must learn these terms and become confident discussing them, as it is almost certain that one or more of these angles will appear in the clip you see in the exam - they are very common and they are usually reasonably easy to relate to the question's chosen area of representation.

Textual Analysis - Camerawork 1 - Camera Distances

In Section A: Textual Analysis and Representation on the G322 Key Media Concepts (TV Drama) paper you will need to show your knowledge of camerawork and the ways in which it creates meaning for the audience.

I have split the discussion of camerawork into 4 separate posts - one each on camera distance, camera angles, camera movement and shot composition: I will begin with camera distance. 

You must learn these terms and use them at all times throughout your essay. If you can relate camera distances directly to the area of representation, that is great. What is more likely, however, is that the camera distance will enable you to focus on some aspect of mise-en-scene (for example figure behaviour, facial expressions, setting or costume) and it is the mise-en-scene that you will be able to link to the chosen area of representation. Get into the habit of constantly using the terminology of camera distances, even when you are describing what is happening. Every shot will be one camera distance or another - so USE THE TERM! I never want to simply read "...the shot..." - instead, you must use the correct terminology.

Remember - there are 10 marks out of the 50 given over to the correct use of terminology - get into the habit of frequently using the terms!

ESTABLISHING SHOT

Establishing shots are usually found at the beginning of scenes (often indication a change in location) and help establish for the audience where the subsequent action takes place - they are very common in TV Dramas and it is likely that there will be one at the beginning of the clip you watch, and subsequent establishing shots for each new scene. Usually they will be extreme long shots and will focus on the location/setting. Establishing shots are used to orientate the audience BUT may also create expectations for the audience about themes or the action that will follow. Often establishing shots are followed by a series of shots that gradually get closer to where the action is taking place. Many filmmakers choose not to use conventional establishing shots to begin a scene, preferring to thrust their audience immediately into the action - if this happens in a scene you are viewing, you should think about why the director may have chosen to do this.

EXTREME LONG SHOTS (ELS)

In extreme long shots the setting will dominate and characters will often be relatively small in comparison, dwarfed by their surroundings. With extreme long shots it is likely that the director will be asking the audience to focus their attention on the setting - here, you should discuss what expectations the setting creates (in terms of the narrative and, possibly characters) and don't forget to describe the setting. Extreme long shots are often used to make a character appear vulnerable or isolated, and to make the setting appear threatening - if you are going to say something about the expectations created for the audience about character, try to link it to the area of representation. In the shot above you would want to mention the barren, icy setting, commenting on the both the beauty and hostility of the landscape. The characters appear small in comparison, and seem isolated and potentially vulnerable (this is compounded by the fact that they are loosely framed). Here, the extreme shot draws our attention to the setting and the way that it seems to envelope and dominate the characters.

LONG SHOT (LS)

If a long shot features a character, the character's head will be near the top of the frame whilst his/her feet will be towards the bottom of the frame. Long shots are not great for showing facial expressions BUT are useful for encouraging audiences to notice element of mise-en-scene, such as costume and characters' figure behaviour. Whilst characters are certainly more prominent in long shots than they are in extreme long shots, setting will still be reasonably important. If you are analysing the meaning created by a long shot, just remember that you may want to comment on both setting and character. In the shot above, our attention is drawn to the characters' positions in relation to each other, their costumes and their respective figure behaviour - here, you would think about the way that the long shot allows you too see aspects of mise-en-scene, before trying to link mise-en-scene to the area of representation.

MEDIUM LONG SHOT (MLS)

In a medium long shot (sometimes known as an American shot or a three-quarter shot), characters are shot from roughly the knees up. Here, the character will begin to dominate the frame and we will be able to see facial expressions more clearly. As with a long shot, the audience's attention will be drawn to aspects of mise-en-scene such as costume and figure behaviour - in the shot above, the character's costume and stance indicate much about him to the audience.

MEDIUM SHOT (MS)

In a medium shot, characters will be shown from roughly the waist up - dominating the frame much more obviously than the setting. Here, you should think about figure behaviour and facial expressions (alongside other elements of mise-en-scene such as props and costume). Medium shots, medium close ups and close ups are used to help position the audience with the TV dramas central protagonist (the main character will often get more of these closer shots than any other character - though you could be shown a clip that focuses on a villainous character and it is possible he/she will be shot from these closer distances).

MEDIUM CLOSE UP (MCU)

In a medium close up, characters are shot from roughly the chest up. The setting will be largely irrelevant (or, certainly much less important than in previous shot distances) and the focus of the audience's attention will be on the character's figure behaviour and, in particular, his/her facial expression. Here, you should first identify the shot and then discuss the way that the character's facial expression emphasises particular emotions - before relating this to the area of representation.

CLOSE UP (CU)

Characters in close ups are shot from the tops of the shoulders/neck up, and the head will dominate the frame. The focus here is most definitely on a character's facial expression, their emotions or reactions - think about the ways in which the emotions you spot can be linked to the area of representation. Often directors will use close ups (or extreme close ups) to draw the audience's attention to a prop, hinting that it will have some significance later in the narrative - here, you should think about the expectations created by such a shot.

EXTREME CLOSE UP (ECU)

Extreme close ups will emphasise a part of the face (for example the nose, eye or lips) or the body (for example a toe or a finger). Extreme close ups are often too close to show any real emotion or general reaction - so you should think about any specific reasons the director may have chosen this shot; though this may not necessarily help you in your analysis, extreme close ups are often used because they are aesthetically interesting shots.

Look out for the next post on camera angles, and further posts on all areas of film form.

Using the Wentworth Media AS Blog

I will be posting notes, links and resources for the Media AS course on the blog, at regular intervals. There will be tips for the research and planning stages for your radio coursework, as well as hints regarding the construction of your radio extract and advice about completing the evaluation.

There will be clips for you to practice the textual analysis section ahead of your exam, with some analysis of clips that I have done (so you can get a feel for the ways that you should construct your essays!). You must practice as many of these as possible - if you email me your essays to alexmorphey@btinternet.com, I will mark them with comments about how you can improve.

I will also add notes for the second section of the exam, with case studies that you will be essential to include in your answers.

Keep an eye on the blog for updates!

Analysis of "Primeval" Clip

This clip should be analysed with reference to the way that GENDER is represented.


Feel free to include an introduction along the lines of the one below OR just start your analysis with the phrase "The scene begins with..."

Primeval - Analysis

The purpose of the scene is to create intensity and excitement for the audience, and gender is represented both stereotypically and atypically through the use of camerawork, editing, sound and mise-en-scene. Abby, the female character whom the audience are most clearly positioned with, has many masculine traits, and the way that she is represented is in sharp contrast to Jenny, the female character in the final part of the clip. Similarly, their are different representations of men, or times when certain male characters are represented in less typically masculine ways.


The scene begins with a two shot of a male and female character in medium close up. The camera dollies, tracking them as they walk away from the camera and towards two parked cars. Their figure behaviour suggests that they may have had an argument, and it is clear that the woman is distressed. The man's arm is placed around the back of the woman, as if he is comforting her; a representation of the male as gentlemanly. In contrast, as the director cuts to an over-the-shoulder shot facing the woman, we can see that she is upset; her emotion is clearly visible because of the medium close up used. Her tone of voice, her facial expression and her figure behaviour present her as hysterical and overly-emotional; stereotypical characteristics often associated with women in television drama. The non-diegetic music has a plaintive, sad tone, further reflecting the woman's heightened emotions.


As the woman talks, the director cuts back to the man. The reaction shot, in medium close up, allows us to see his confusion, and we sense that he does not know how to respond to the woman's outburst; stereotypically the male character keeps quiet, possibly fearful that he may upset the woman further. The idea that men are unable to fathom women's reactions, uncertain how to deal with women particularly when they are upset, is another stereotypical representation of gender. 


As the man turns away from the woman, the director immediately cuts to an over-the shoulder shot, the man's figure behaviour and facial expression further compounding the fact that he is unsure of how to deal with the situation. Two characters can be seen in the distance, sat around a picnic bench, and the way the shot has been composed implies that the man is seeking their advice about how to deal with the woman. The use of shallow focus makes it difficult for the audience to tell clearly the gender of the characters on the bench, and it initially appears that they are both male. As a male voice suggests that the woman should be allowed to leave, the director cuts back to the previous shot of the man positioned on the left side of the frame (marginalised and helpless as a result of his inability to deal with the situation), as the woman opens the door of a jeep. The extreme long shot of her allows the audience to concentrate on her figure behaviour (which is flustered), but also allows us to see her costume in relation to the setting. She is not dressed in a particularly feminine costume, which seems appropriate considering the setting is a woodland. She wears functional jeans and a body warmer, which may imply that she is at home in this environment. The vehicle that she drives (an old-style jeep) suggests, alongside her costume, a rugged side to her personality, as if she may have traits more commonly associated with men (though the fact she wears her long hair down makes her appear more feminine than Abby, whom we meet later in the scene). As the man turns and walks towards the camera (the camera dollying out as he does so), the medium close up allows use to see his confused expression and his figure behaviour as he shrugs his shoulders; both further indications that, stereotypically, the male does not understand the female.


The director cuts to an extreme long shot of a JCB digger deep in the woodland (a difficult terrain, which would make it harder to control the vehicle), and as the camera pans slowly, the digger moves towards it, revealing that it is being driven by a woman. Whilst the camera pans, a man walks across the frame (wearing a dirty t-shirt, suggesting he is used to physical work; a masculine trait), carrying branches, stereotypically fulfilling the masculine "hunter gatherer" role. In sharp contrast, the director cuts to a long shot of another male character somewhere else in the forest, appearing to set a trap. The camera zooms in slowly towards him, and his figure behaviour (as he lays a leg of meat onto a pit covered by leaves) is delicate, and more typically feminine than either the man in the previous scene or the woman driving the digger. His costume also implies that he looks out of place in the rugged wilderness; he wears a trilby hat and waistcoat, and the t-shirt he wears is pink - traditionally a colour with feminine connotations.


By cutting back to a medium shot of Abby in the digger, the director reinforces the differences between the male and female characters. The editing choice, following the shot of the man immediately with the shot of the woman emphasises the differences in both their figure behaviour and their costumes. Whereas the man's body language was delicate and dainty, Abby's figure behaviour is more confident and assured, as she impressively controls the heavy vehicle. This implies that she has a degree of strength that the audience may more commonly associate with male characters. The medium shot allows us to see Abby's appearance, and her short cropped hair and her dark leather jacket give her a masculine look (later, we see that she is also wearing combat trousers in khaki green, another element of mise-en-scene that goes against stereotypical gender expectations). Enhanced diegetic sound effects, of the digger roaring, emphasise its power, again implying that it is difficult to control. Abby's figure behaviour shows that she is perfectly capable of controlling such a cumbersome machine, representation which is reinforced by the smooth editing as the director cuts from Abby's movements to the ground being carefully excavated.